![]() There exists no heart failure specific clinical sign the clinical symptomatic shows progressive deterioration acutely or chronically. ![]() In consequence, activation of the sympathoadrenergic and renin-angiotensin-aldosterone-system takes place leading to adaptive mechanisms, which are accompanied by volume overload, tachycardia, dyspnoea and further deterioration of the cellular function (vicious circle). These processes influence the cell function among intra- as well as intercellular behavior. Following a cardiac injury (e.g., myocardial infarction, increased preload or afterload) cellular, structural and neurohumoral modulations occur that affect the phenotype being present. Both, the etiology and phenotype of heart failure differ largely. Heart failure is an epidemic disease which affects about 1% to 2% of the population worldwide.
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